Everything below concerns heptapeptide. We keep the language plain, cite what the science says, and separate well-supported claims from open questions.
Updated 2026-02-16. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
Development took place during the 1980s at institutes of the Russian Academy of Sciences, where peptide fragments of ACTH were screened for cognitive and neuroprotective effects. The compound received regulatory approval in Russia as a nasal preparation, marketed for conditions such as ischemic stroke, transient ischemic attacks, and optic nerve disorders. Registration in other countries has not followed. Most published clinical reports originate from a small number of Russian research groups, and independent replication outside that setting remains limited. The regulatory status therefore differs sharply between Russia and the rest of the world.
Laboratory work points toward modulation of neurotrophic signaling, particularly expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in hippocampal tissue. Studies also describe effects on monoamine turnover, inflammatory mediators, and oxidative markers. These observations come mainly from animal models and cultured cells, so the causal chain in humans is not firmly established. Whether the reported molecular changes translate into measurable clinical benefit is an open question. Reviews generally present the mechanism as plausible rather than demonstrated.
Published studies are dominated by animal models of stroke, ischemia, and cognitive impairment, with a smaller number of human trials conducted in Russia. Many of the human reports are small, single-center, and published in Russian-language journals, which limits independent scrutiny. Outcome measures vary between studies and often rely on clinician-rated scales rather than objective biomarkers. Systematic reviews have noted the methodological weaknesses and called for larger, preregistered trials before firm conclusions can be drawn.
Claims about enhanced focus, memory, or mood in healthy people rest mostly on anecdotal reports and community discussion rather than on controlled data. It remains unclear whether any cognitive benefit observed in patients recovering from brain injury would extend to uninjured users. Dose-response relationships, long-term safety, and interactions with other drugs are not well characterized in the peer-reviewed literature. Questions about optimal route of administration and treatment duration likewise remain open.
Semax binds to melanocortin receptors and is thought to influence neuronal survival and plasticity rather than to act through the adrenal axis. Laboratory work has shown increased expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in treated tissue. Changes in c-Fos, a marker of neuronal activation, have also been reported. Because the peptide is rapidly degraded by peptidases, its effects are generally attributed to downstream signaling cascades rather than to sustained receptor occupancy.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Sequence | Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro | Heptapeptide; ACTH(4-10) analog extended at C-terminus |
| Molecular mass | ~813.9 Da | Free peptide, unmodified |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Typical lyophilized solid |
| Solubility | Soluble in water and saline | Also soluble in common aqueous buffers |
| Storage (solid) | -20 °C, desiccated | Protect from moisture and repeated thawing |
The compound is registered in Russia as a pharmaceutical product, most commonly formulated as a nasal solution, and has been used in that setting since the 1990s. Outside that jurisdiction it is generally handled as a research chemical rather than an approved medicine. Regulatory status therefore differs sharply between countries, and material sold internationally may not correspond to the Russian pharmaceutical formulation. Documentation with commercial samples is typically limited to a certificate of analysis covering purity and identity, not clinical status or local legal classification.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It corresponds to the ACTH(4-7) fragment extended at the C-terminus by a Pro-Gly-Pro tripeptide, an addition intended to slow enzymatic breakdown. The molecular formula is C37H51N9O10S and the molecular mass is approximately 814 daltons. In the literature it is often described as an ACTH(4-10) analog, although that label reflects a naming convention as much as a precise structural relationship. The compound was developed in Russia and remains most closely associated with that research tradition.
Laboratory descriptions of the material are consistent across suppliers. It appears as a white to off-white lyophilized powder that dissolves readily in water and in polar organic solvents such as dimethyl sulfoxide. Aqueous solutions are clear and colorless at low concentrations. Because the peptide contains methionine, oxidation at the sulfur atom is a recognized degradation pathway, and handling notes usually call for protected, desiccated storage. Reported purity for research-grade lots is generally above 95 percent as measured by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography.
Solid semax is typically supplied as a lyophilised powder that is hygroscopic and sensitive to moisture, light, and repeated temperature cycling. Long-term storage of the dry peptide is generally recommended at approximately -20 degrees Celsius, while shorter working periods may use refrigeration at 2 to 8 degrees Celsius. Vials should remain tightly closed and desiccated when brought to room temperature, because condensation can damage the material before it is weighed. Dividing a batch into aliquots is preferable to thawing one container repeatedly.
Dissolution is normally performed in water, phosphate-buffered saline, or normal saline, since the peptide is freely soluble in aqueous media and is rarely handled with strong organic solvents. Solution pH should be kept near neutral, because extreme acidity or alkalinity accelerates backbone hydrolysis and encourages oxidation of the methionine side chain. Once dissolved, the material is less stable than the dry powder and is commonly divided into single-use portions and frozen. Buffers containing primary amines, such as Tris, are often avoided because of possible side reactions.
Published research on this peptide originates mainly from Russian laboratories, and the wider international literature is comparatively thin. Studies have used rodent models of stroke, hypoxia, and memory tasks, with a smaller number of human trials reported. Reported outcomes include changes in attention and memory measures, along with effects on neurotrophic factor expression in some experiments. Small sample sizes, inconsistent dosing protocols, and limited independent replication are widely noted limitations, so the strength of the clinical evidence remains an open question.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide whose sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. The first four residues correspond to the ACTH(4-10) fragment, while the terminal Pro-Gly-Pro extension was added to improve metabolic stability. Its molecular formula is C37H51N9O10S and its monoisotopic mass is approximately 813.9 Da. The compound is classified as a peptide research chemical and as a registered pharmaceutical product in Russia, but it does not hold marketing approval in the European Union or the United States. Naming conventions vary across supplier catalogs.
溶液状态的稳定性明显低于冻干粉。肽类在水溶液中可能经历水解、氧化与聚集，其中甲硫氨酸和天冬酰胺等残基常是敏感位点。Semax 含有甲硫氨酸，因此氧化风险相对突出。工作液一般主张现配现用，或冷藏并在数日内用尽。缓冲液种类、pH 和离子强度都会影响降解速率，而关于最佳条件的公开数据并不统一。
常规纯度与身份确认依赖反相高效液相色谱，并辅以质谱测定分子量。氨基酸组成分析可用于验证序列构成，肽图分析则能进一步定位修饰或降解产物。杂质谱通常关注缺失序列肽、截短片段和氧化产物。不同方法的检出限并不相同，因此各实验室报告的纯度数值不宜直接横向比较。
Inhibition of fertilization by administration of progesterone during the luteal phase was also demonstrated in animals between 1947 and 1949. Ovulation inhibition by progesterone in animals was subsequently re-confirmed and expanded on by Gregory Pincus and colleagues in 1953 and 1954. Findings on inhibition of ovulation by progesterone in women were first presented at the Fifth International Conference on Planned Parenthood in Tokyo, Japan in October 1955. Three different research groups presented their findings on this topic at the conference. They included Pincus (in conjunction with John Rock, who did not attend the conference); a nine-member Japanese group led by Masaomi Ishikawa; and the two-member team of Abraham Stone and Herbert Kupperman. The conference marked the beginning of a new era in the history of birth control. The results were subsequently published in scientific journals in 1956 in the case of Pincus and in 1957 in the case of Ishikawa and colleagues. Rock and Pincus also subsequently described findings from 1952 that "pseudopregnancy" therapy with a combination of high doses of diethylstilbestrol and oral progesterone prevented ovulation and pregnancy in women. Unfortunately, the use of oral progesterone as a hormonal contraceptive was plagued by problems. These included the large and by extension expensive doses required, incomplete inhibition of ovulation even at high doses, and a frequent incidence of breakthrough bleeding.
The Krasnopresnenskoye depot network, with its westernmost point at Strogino (depot location) and its easternmost point near platform Dmitrovskaya. This network was divided in 1973; however, until 1997 it could have been easily reconnected using about 1 kilometer (50 chains) of track and three switches. The network has the highest usage in Moscow and no weak points based on traffic, except the to-depot lane (passengers serviced by bus) and the tram ring at Dmitrovskaya (because this is neither a normal transfer point nor a repair terminal). The Apakov depot services the southwestern portion, from Varshavsky Lane–Simferopolsky Boulevard in the east, to Universitet station in the west and Boulevard Lane at the center. This network is connected only by the four-way Dubininskaya and Kozhevnicheskaya Streets. A second connection by Vostochnaya (Eastern) Street was phased out in 1987 because of a fire at the Dinamo plant; this connection has not been recovered, and it remains lost (Avtozavodsky Bridge) as of 1992. In any case, the network may be serviced by another depot (routes 35 and 38). The main three depot networks with railway gate and tram-repair plant. In addition, tram advocates have suggested that the new rapid transit services (metro to the city, Butovo light metro, monorail) would be more effective as at-grade tram lines and that the problems with trams are only due to poor management and operation, not the technical properties of trams. New tram models have been developed for the Moscow network despite the lack of expansion.
CoA-glutathione + glutathione Thus, the two substrates of this enzyme are CoA and glutathione disulfide, whereas its two products are CoA-glutathione and glutathione. This enzyme belongs to the family of oxidoreductases, specifically those acting on a sulfur group of donors with a disulfide as acceptor. The systematic name of this enzyme class is CoA:glutathione-disulfide oxidoreductase. Other names in common use include glutathione-coenzyme A glutathione disulfide transhydrogenase, glutathione-coenzyme A glutathione disulfide transhydrogenase, glutathione coenzyme A-glutathione transhydrogenase, glutathione:coenzyme A-glutathione transhydrogenase, coenzyme A:oxidized-glutathione oxidoreductase, and coenzyme A:glutathione-disulfide oxidoreductase. This enzyme participates in cysteine metabolism and glutathione metabolism.
==== MeSH E05.196.922 – titrimetry ==== MeSH E05.196.922.250 – colorimetry MeSH E05.196.922.375 – complement hemolytic activity assay MeSH E05.196.922.500 – conductometry MeSH E05.196.922.625 – neutralization tests MeSH E05.196.922.750 – potentiometry MeSH E05.196.922.875 – skin test end-point titration
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The domestication of mammals was instrumental in the Neolithic development of agriculture and of civilization, causing farmers to replace hunter-gatherers around the world. This transition from hunting and gathering to herding flocks and growing crops was a major step in human history. The new agricultural economies, based on domesticated mammals, caused "radical restructuring of human societies, worldwide alterations in biodiversity, and significant changes in the Earth's landforms and its atmosphere... momentous outcomes". Domestic mammals form a large part of the livestock raised for meat across the world. They include (2009) around 1.4 billion cattle, 1 billion sheep, 1 billion domestic pigs, and (1985) over 700 million rabbits. Working domestic animals including cattle and horses have been used for work and transport from the origins of agriculture, their numbers declining with the arrival of mechanized transport and agricultural machinery. In 2004 they still provided some 80% of the power for the mainly small farms in the third world, and some 20% of the world's transport, again mainly in rural areas. In mountainous regions unsuitable for wheeled vehicles, pack animals continue to transport goods. Mammal skins provide leather for shoes, clothing and upholstery. Wool from mammals including sheep, goats and alpacas has been used for centuries for clothing.
Benzodiazepines are generally viewed as safe and effective for short-term use of two to four weeks, although cognitive impairment and paradoxical effects such as aggression or behavioral disinhibition can occur. According to the Government of Victoria's (Australia) Department of Health, long-term use can cause "impaired thinking or memory loss, anxiety and depression, irritability, paranoia, aggression, etc." A minority of people have paradoxical reactions after taking benzodiazepines such as worsened agitation or panic. Benzodiazepines are often prescribed for as-needed use, which is under-studied, but is most likely, probably safe and effective to the extent that it involves intermittent short-term use. Benzodiazepines are associated with an increased risk of suicide due to aggression, impulsivity, and negative withdrawal effects. Long-term use is controversial because of concerns about decreasing effectiveness, physical dependence, benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome, and an increased risk of dementia and cancer. The elderly are at an increased risk of both short- and long-term adverse effects, and as a result, all benzodiazepines are listed in the Beers List of inappropriate medications for older adults. There is controversy concerning the safety of benzodiazepines during pregnancy. While they are not major teratogens, uncertainty remains as to whether they cause cleft palate in a small number of babies and whether neurobehavioural effects occur as a result of prenatal exposure; they are known to cause withdrawal symptoms in the newborn.
== Side effects == Common adverse effects (occurring in between 1 and 10% of people) include low potassium, decreased appetite, delirium, headache, sleepiness, vein inflammation, difficulty breathing, acute respiratory failure, vomiting, diarrhea, nausea, stomach pain, elevated results in liver function tests, rash, itchy skin, kidney failure, chest pain, and fatigue. There are several uncommon side effects as well. In preclinical studies, isavuconazonium caused birth defects in animals; it has not been tested in pregnant women.
== Production == 5-HTP is produced from the amino acid tryptophan through the action of the enzyme tryptophan hydroxylase. Tryptophan hydroxylase is one of the biopterin-dependent aromatic amino acid hydroxylases. Production of 5-HTP is the rate-limiting step in 5-HT (serotonin) synthesis. 5-HTP is normally rapidly converted to 5-HT by amino acid decarboxylase.
South Africa's defence establishment perceived this aspect of Cuban and to a lesser extent Soviet policy through the prism of the domino theory: if Havana and Moscow succeeded in installing a communist regime in Angola, it was only a matter of time before they attempted the same in South West Africa.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
mosaicism The presence of two or more populations of cells with different genotypes in an individual organism which has developed from a single fertilized egg. A mosaic organism can result from many kinds of genetic phenomena, including nondisjunction of chromosomes, endoreduplication, or mutations in individual stem cell lineages during the early development of the embryo. Mosaicism is similar to but distinct from chimerism.
=== 2023: French Open semifinals, Hamburg title === Zverev returned to the tour for the first time since his ankle injury by participating at the inaugural United Cup where he lost in straight sets to Jiří Lehečka and Taylor Fritz. Seeded 12th at the Australian Open, he won his first match since June 2022 by beating lucky loser, Juan Pablo Varillas, in the first round in five sets. He was defeated in the second round by American and lucky loser, Michael Mmoh, in four sets. After the Australian Open, Zverev represented Germany in the Davis Cup tie against Switzerland. He won his first match over Stan Wawrinka. He lost his second match to Marc-Andrea Hüsler. Switzerland ended up winning the tie over Germany 3–2. Seeded eighth at the Rotterdam Open, he was eliminated from the tournament in the second round by Dutch wildcard, Tallon Griekspoor, in three sets. Seeded fourth at the Qatar ExxonMobil Open, he fell in the second round to wildcard, former world No. 1, two-time champion, and eventual finalist, Andy Murray. In March, he played at the Dubai Championships. Seeded seventh, he reached the semifinals where he lost to second seed, defending champion, and eventual finalist, Andrey Rublev. Zverev began his early U.S. hard court campaign at the Indian Wells Masters. Seeded 12th, he reached the fourth round but lost to fifth seed, world No. 6, and eventual finalist, Daniil Medvedev, in three close sets. Seeded 13th at the Miami Open, he was beaten in the second round by wildcard Taro Daniel. Zverev began his clay-court season at the Monte-Carlo Masters.
The first elections took place in January 1889 and the county council formally came into being on 1 April 1889. On that day its first official meeting was held at the old Shire Hall on Old Elvet in Durham, the courthouse (built 1811) which had served as the meeting place of the quarter sessions which preceded the county council. The first chairman of the council was John Lloyd Wharton, who was the Conservative Member of Parliament for Ripon (in Yorkshire); he had also been chairman of the Durham Quarter Sessions since 1871. Durham was the first county council to be controlled by the Labour Party, which won the most seats in 1919. In 1974, the county was redesignated as a non-metropolitan county under the Local Government Act 1972. As part of those reforms the county ceded territory in the north-east to the new county of Tyne and Wear and in the south-east to the new county of Cleveland, but gained the former Startforth Rural District covering the part of Teesdale south of the River Tees from the North Riding of Yorkshire, and Darlington was brought back under the county council's control. Until 1974, the lower tier of local government comprised numerous boroughs, urban districts and rural districts. The districts were also reorganised in 1974 into eight non-metropolitan districts: Chester-le-Street, Darlington, Derwentside, Durham, Easington, Sedgefield, Teesdale, and Wear Valley. In 1997, Darlington became a unitary authority, removing it from county council control.
The suspensory ligaments of Cooper play an important role in the change in appearance of the breast that often accompanies the development of inflammatory carcinoma of the breast in which blockage of the local lymphatic ducts causes swelling of the breast. Because the skin remains tethered by the suspensory ligaments of Cooper, it takes on a dimpled appearance reminiscent of the peel of an orange (peau d'orange). Carcinomas can also decrease the length of Cooper's ligaments leading to a dimpling.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Semax is a synthetic seven-amino-acid peptide derived from a fragment of corticotropin. It is used in Russia as a nasal preparation, while elsewhere it is studied as a research compound. It is not approved as a medicine in most countries.
Its sequence corresponds to the 4-10 region of corticotropin extended by three residues. This fragment lacks the region responsible for adrenal steroid release, so it is explored for neural rather than hormonal effects. The relationship explains the compound's classification among ACTH-derived peptides.
It holds approval in Russia for several neurological indications as a nasal spray or drop formulation. Regulatory agencies in the United States and the European Union have not approved it. Products sold elsewhere are generally labeled for research use only.
It is associated with the melanocortin receptor family, particularly subtypes found in the central nervous system. This interaction is separate from the adrenal pathway activated by full-length ACTH.