A practical reference on intranasal route: what it is, how it behaves, what the literature reports, and where the honest uncertainties sit.
This page was last updated on 2025-12-17 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
Regulatory status differs sharply between jurisdictions. In Russia the peptide is registered as a prescription nasal preparation, while agencies such as the United States Food and Drug Administration have not approved it for any indication. Products sold elsewhere are typically labeled for laboratory research only, and such labels shift responsibility for safe handling to the purchaser. Because the same name covers pharmaceutical-grade nasal drops and bulk research powder, identity and purity documentation becomes the main practical concern when comparing sources.
Semax is a synthetic seven-amino-acid peptide whose sequence extends the ACTH(4-10) fragment with a C-terminal proline-glycine-proline tripeptide. The commonly cited sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro, giving a molecular formula near C37H51N9O10S and a molecular weight close to 813.9 g/mol. It belongs to the broader class of synthetic ACTH fragments studied for central nervous system effects rather than for adrenal steroid stimulation. In practice the material appears as a lyophilized white powder for laboratory work or as a dilute saline solution in clinical settings.
Development is attributed to researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow during the early 1980s, building on earlier Soviet work with ACTH fragments. Russian regulatory approval followed for intranasal use, and the compound has remained commercially available there for decades. Most published human data originate from Russian and, later, some Eastern European clinical reports, which are not always accessible in English translation. Outside that region the material is generally handled as a research chemical rather than a licensed medicine.
Published research on this peptide originates mainly from Russian laboratories, and the wider international literature is comparatively thin. Studies have used rodent models of stroke, hypoxia, and memory tasks, with a smaller number of human trials reported. Reported outcomes include changes in attention and memory measures, along with effects on neurotrophic factor expression in some experiments. Small sample sizes, inconsistent dosing protocols, and limited independent replication are widely noted limitations, so the strength of the clinical evidence remains an open question.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide whose sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. The first four residues correspond to the ACTH(4-10) fragment, while the terminal Pro-Gly-Pro extension was added to improve metabolic stability. Its molecular formula is C37H51N9O10S and its monoisotopic mass is approximately 813.9 Da. The compound is classified as a peptide research chemical and as a registered pharmaceutical product in Russia, but it does not hold marketing approval in the European Union or the United States. Naming conventions vary across supplier catalogs.
Development of the compound took place in the Soviet Union during the 1980s, largely through peptide research groups affiliated with the Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute and Moscow State University. Investigators screened fragments of adrenocorticotropic hormone for activity on the central nervous system while attempting to separate cognitive effects from hormonal ones. The shortened sequence was selected because it retained behavioral activity in animal models without stimulating corticosteroid release. Early publications described the molecule as an ACTH(4-10) analog.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Chemical class | Synthetic heptapeptide (ACTH fragment analog) | Not a steroid; does not belong to the melanocortin agonist drugs by marketing category |
| Molecular formula | C37H51N9O10S (commonly cited) | Reported values vary slightly with salt and counter-ion content |
| Appearance | White to off-white lyophilized powder | A single batch may appear as a loose cake or fluffy solid |
| Solubility | Freely soluble in water and aqueous buffer | Stock solutions are usually prepared in sterile water or saline |
| Typical storage | −20 °C or below, desiccated and protected from light | Seal opened vials promptly to limit moisture uptake |
Russian regulatory authorities approved the peptide for nasal administration, and it remains listed in the national pharmacopoeia under several trade names. Documented indications include acute ischemic stroke, transient ischemic attacks, traumatic brain injury, and certain ophthalmological and neurological conditions. Physicians also prescribe it for cognitive complaints in older patients, although the evidence base for that use is thinner. Outside Russia and a few neighboring states, the substance is not an approved medicine and is sold instead as a research chemical.
Later generations of the molecule include an N-acetylated form and an amidated form, both marketed online alongside the parent peptide. These variants differ in terminal chemistry and stability, and they are frequently discussed in the same breath even though they have not been compared in controlled trials. Supply outside formal healthcare systems comes largely from laboratories that synthesize peptides to order. Purity and identity of these materials vary widely, and no single body oversees the international trade.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide developed in the Soviet Union during the 1980s by researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow. It was designed as a truncated analog of adrenocorticotropic hormone, retaining only the fragment spanning residues four through ten. Investigators sought a peptide that would preserve the cognitive effects associated with ACTH while eliminating the hormonal stimulation of the adrenal cortex. The compound entered clinical use in Russia during the following decade.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide whose sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. It was developed as a fragment analog of adrenocorticotropic hormone, modeled specifically on the ACTH(4-10) region. The first four residues reproduce that fragment, while a Pro-Gly-Pro tripeptide is appended at the C-terminus. Work on the compound originated in Russia, where it entered clinical use as an intranasal preparation. Its sequence places it among short regulatory peptides studied for effects on the central nervous system rather than on the adrenal axis.
The C-terminal Pro-Gly-Pro extension is not incidental. Proline-rich tails are known to resist several common peptidases, and the published literature attributes the longer half-life of Semax, relative to unmodified ACTH fragments, to this feature. The modification also removes the melanocyte-stimulating and corticosteroidogenic activity that characterizes longer ACTH-derived sequences. Because the molecule is small and hydrophilic, it is typically formulated as an aqueous solution for intranasal or parenteral delivery. Acetylation or amidation at the termini appears in closely related research peptides and shifts the mass by a fixed increment.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. Its design combines the ACTH(4-7) core fragment with a C-terminal Pro-Gly-Pro extension, a modification intended to improve stability and prolong activity. The molecule is hydrophilic, carries no lipid chains or glycosylation, and has a theoretical mass just over 810 daltons in its free form. All seven residues are proteinogenic amino acids, so no non-natural building blocks appear in the backbone. A free N-terminal methionine and C-terminal proline define the unmodified parent peptide.
The compound was developed during the 1980s at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow as part of research on fragments of adrenocorticotropic hormone. Early work examined short ACTH-derived sequences that retained neurotrophic effects while lacking the endocrine activity of the full hormone. Semax entered clinical use in Russia during the 1990s, where it received registration for several neurological indications. Outside that region it remained primarily a laboratory research material rather than an approved therapeutic. English-language literature on it grew more slowly and frequently cited the original Russian studies.
Terminology around the compound varies by source. It appears in catalogues and papers as Semax, as the heptapeptide ACTH(4-7)-Pro-Gly-Pro, and under various alphanumeric laboratory codes used by individual suppliers. These names refer to the same sequence but may imply different salt forms, purity grades, or counter-ions. Peptide databases usually list the free base mass, while product descriptions sometimes report acetate or trifluoroacetate salts with a different formula weight. Because naming conventions for research peptides are not standardised across vendors, checking the declared sequence and measured mass is more reliable than relying on a trade name alone.
The compound was developed in the 1980s at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow, where it emerged from research on short ACTH fragments and their effects on the central nervous system. Russian pharmaceutical listings describe it as a nootropic and neuroprotective agent, most often formulated as nasal drops. It is not a marketed medicine in the United States or the European Union, and no pharmacopoeial monograph covers it. Consequently, most published clinical experience with the substance originates from a small number of research centres, mainly in Russia and neighbouring countries.
Pharmacological accounts link semax to melanocortin signalling and to modulation of neurotrophic factor expression, particularly brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor. Much of this evidence comes from rodent studies using intranasal delivery, a route chosen because it allows peptides to reach the central nervous system with limited systemic exposure. Whether the same mechanisms operate in humans at comparable magnitude remains an open question. The precise receptor or receptors responsible for the reported behavioural and neuroprotective effects have not been conclusively identified.
Beyond acting as the carrier protein for vitamin D and its metabolites, DBP also transports free fatty acids, binds to actin and may help prevent actin polymerization during tissue injury. It also might serve as a macrophage activator, contributing to the inflammatory response by modulating T-cell activity. As Gc protein-derived macrophage activating factor it is a Macrophage Activating Factor (MAF) that has been tested for use as a cancer treatment that would activate macrophages against cancer cells.
=== Judiciary === Kennedy is a member of the Senate Judiciary Committee. As a member, he voted to confirm Justices Neil Gorsuch, Brett Kavanaugh, and Amy Coney Barrett. He voted against the nomination of Justice Ketanji Brown Jackson. Kennedy has defended the blue slip process for district court judges, saying that it "encourages bipartisan cooperation … The blue slip process makes our court system fairer and stronger. And that’s good for our democracy." He often asks judicial nominees basic questions about the Constitution during their confirmation process, occasionally stumping them. Kennedy has opposed the effort to add more justices to the Supreme Court, claiming it would "delegitimize" the Court. He has said he supports judges and justices who believe in "judicial restraint", adding, "Federal judges don't make law. They don't tell us what the law ought to be. They tell us what the law is." Kennedy opposed Congress establishing ethics standards for justices. He claimed such a move would violate the Constitution and called it "a crusade to undermine the United States' Supreme Court's legitimacy and the credibility of the federal judiciary." Kennedy's sharp questioning in the Judiciary Committee led to the eventual firing of former Department of Homeland Security Secretary Kristi Noem after he asked her why she had spent hundreds of millions of dollars on advertisements in which she prominently featured herself. Kennedy said he had spoken to President Trump about Noem's spending and that Trump was "mad as a mama wasp" when Noem claimed Trump had approved the spending.
== Origin == Whenever muscles and joints are moved this also exerts mechanical strain on related fascia. The general assumption in sports science had therefore been that muscle strength exercises as well as cardiovascular training would be sufficient for an optimal training of the associate fibrous connective tissues. However, recent ultrasound-based research revealed that the mechanical threshold for a training effect on tendinous tissues tends to be significantly higher than for muscle fibers. This insight happened roughly during the same time in which the field of fascia research attracted major attention by showing that fascial tissues are much more than passive transmitters of muscular tension (years 2007 – 2010). Both influences together triggered an increasing attention in sports science towards the question whether and how fascial tissues can be specifically stimulated with active exercises. Researchers who contributed to the initial scientific investigation of this direction include Robert Schleip, Jan Wilke, Michael Kjaer and Adamantios Arampatzis.
Surgery to remove the prostate is called prostatectomy, and is usually done as a treatment for cancer limited to the prostate, or for prostatic enlargement. When it is done, it may be done as open surgery or as laparoscopic (keyhole) surgery. These are done under general anaesthetic. Usually the procedure for cancer is a radical prostatectomy, which means that the seminal vesicles are removed and the vasa deferentia are also tied off. Part of the prostate can also be removed from within the urethra, called transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP). Open surgery may involve a cut that is made in the perineum, or via an approach that involves a cut down the midline from the belly button to the pubic bone. Open surgery may be preferred if there is a suspicion that lymph nodes are involved and they need to be removed or biopsied during a procedure. A perineal approach will not involve lymph node removal and may result in less pain and a faster recovery following an operation. A TURP procedure uses a tube inserted into the urethra via the penis and some form of heat, electricity or laser to remove prostate tissue. The whole prostate can be removed. Complications that might develop because of surgery include urinary incontinence and erectile dysfunction because of damage to nerves during the operation, particularly if a cancer is very close to nerves. Ejaculation of semen will not occur during orgasm if the vasa deferentia are tied off and seminal vesicles removed, such as during a radical prosatectomy. This will mean a man becomes infertile.
== Mechanisms == Follistatin is an endogenous protein that negatively regulates myostatin. Reduction of myostatin expression is one of the mechanisms for the effects of androgens in promoting muscle growth. Androgens both regulate myostatin expression directly and upregulate follistatin expression. YK-11, a selective androgen receptor modulator, is also a myostatin inhibitor. Resistance training reduces myostatin activity and increases follistatin activity. Pharmacological myostatin inhibitors can therefore be considered exercise mimetics. Creatine, a popular workout supplement, has shown some myostatin inhibitory effects in preclinical studies. Many drugs in development as myostatin inhibitors also reduce the activity of related proteins such as GDF11, activins, and bone morphogenetic proteins. While this off target activity can increase their effectiveness in promoting anabolism, it also increases the risk of adverse effects. Monoclonal antibodies have been developed that disable myostatin, including apitegromab, domagrozumab, landogrozumab, and stamulumab. Another form of myostatin inhibition is gene therapy. Another monoclonal antibody, bimagrumab, works as an antagonist of the ACVR2 and ACVR2B receptors, preventing myostatin and activin A from binding. Because activin A reduces erythropoiesis, targeting the ACVR receptors and inhibiting activin A activity can increase the risk of venous thromboembolism in patients who are not anemic.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Middle Ages === Any preservation of this knowledge in literature from the Middle Ages is unknown, but medieval masons and some military engineers actively used hydraulic cement in structures such as canals, fortresses, harbors, and shipbuilding facilities. A mixture of lime mortar and aggregate with brick or stone facing material was used in the Eastern Roman Empire as well as in the West into the Gothic period. The German Rhineland continued to use hydraulic mortar throughout the Middle Ages, having local pozzolana deposits called trass.
Both the short gastric arteries and the splenic artery supply it with blood. The germinal centers are supplied by arterioles called penicilliary radicles. In humans, until the fifth month of prenatal development, the spleen creates red blood cells; after birth, the bone marrow is solely responsible for hematopoiesis. As a major lymphoid organ and a central player in the reticuloendothelial system, the spleen retains the ability to produce lymphocytes. The spleen stores red blood cells and lymphocytes. It can store enough blood cells to help in an emergency. During acute blood loss, the spleen contracts to release stored erythrocytes, helping to maintain blood volume and oxygen delivery temporarily. Up to 25% of lymphocytes can be stored at any one time.
== Research == Animal models have shown that low-dose methamphetamine improves cognitive and behavioural functioning following TBI (traumatic brain injury). This is in contrast to high, repeated doses which cause neurotoxicity. These models demonstrate that low-dose methamphetamine increases neurogenesis and reduces apoptosis in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus following TBI. It has also been found that TBI patients testing positive for methamphetamine at the time of emergency department admission have lower rates of mortality. It has been suggested, based on animal research, that calcitriol, the active metabolite of vitamin D, can provide significant protection against the DA- and 5-HT-depleting effects of neurotoxic doses of methamphetamine. Protection against methamphetamine-induced neurotoxicity has also been observed following administration of ascorbic acid (vitamin C), cobalamin (vitamin B12), and vitamin E.
=== Polymorphisms === A Human Genome Equivalent (HuGE) review in 2004 looked at studies of the connection between genetic mutations affecting leptin regulation and obesity. They reviewed a common polymorphism in the leptin gene (A19G; frequency 0.46), three mutations in the leptin receptor gene (Q223R, K109R, and K656N) and two mutations in the PPARG gene (P12A and C161T). They found no association between any of the polymorphisms and obesity. A 2006 study found a link between the common LEP-2548 G/A genotype and morbid obesity in Taiwanese aborigines, but a 2014 meta-analysis did not, however, this polymorphism has been associated with weight gain in patients taking antipsychotics. The LEP-2548 G/A polymorphism has been linked with an increased risk of prostate cancer, gestational diabetes, and osteoporosis. Other rare polymorphisms have been found, but their association with obesity are not consistent.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== Mating === When ready to mate, cabbage loopers display by elevating their abdomen and fanning their wings. Males also fan out their abdominal hairs, open their genital claspers, and partially stick out their spermatophores. Males gradually expose more of their spermatophores as they wait for a mate. Upon interest, a potential mate examines the other's abdomen with antennae, and mating occurs if both agree. Mating on average occurs at 2am, but has been observed occurring between 12 and 4am. Mating generally occurs 3–4 days after emergence, but can occur up to 16 days afterwards. Usually, mating does not occur before the third day, as eggs are not fully developed upon emergence and require a few days to reach maturity. Multiple matings is a mating strategy where individuals have multiple mates in their lifetime. This is in contrast to monogamy, where individuals have one mate for life. Mating multiply can be advantageous to both sexes, which is why this strategy has evolved in many species, including the cabbage looper. For female cabbage loopers, rate of oviposition increases with the number of matings, and ultimately lay more eggs total. While it was once believed that multiple matings were necessary to fertilize all eggs, evidence shows that only one mating is needed to fertilize almost all eggs. Instead, it is more likely that the spermatophore provides nutrients to the female that confers reproductive benefits. This may explain why males produce female-attracting pheromones, as females may be seeking nutrient-rich spermatophores.
=== Lysosomal damage inhibits mTOR and induces autophagy === Active mTORC1 is positioned on lysosomes. mTOR is inhibited when lysosomal membrane is damaged by various exogenous or endogenous agents, such as invading bacteria, membrane-permeant chemicals yielding osmotically active products (this type of injury can be modeled using membrane-permeant dipeptide precursors that polymerize in lysosomes), amyloid protein aggregates (see above section on Alzheimer's disease) and cytoplasmic organic or inorganic inclusions including urate crystals and crystalline silica. The process of mTOR inactivation following lysosomal/endomembrane damage is mediated by the protein complex termed GALTOR. At the heart of GALTOR is galectin-8, a member of β-galactoside binding superfamily of cytosolic lectins termed galectins, which recognizes lysosomal membrane damage by binding to the exposed glycans on the lumenal side of the delimiting endomembrane. Following membrane damage, galectin-8, which normally associates with mTOR under homeostatic conditions, no longer interacts with mTOR but now instead binds to SLC38A9, RRAGA/RRAGB, and LAMTOR1, inhibiting Ragulator's (LAMTOR1-5 complex) guanine nucleotide exchange function. mTOR is a negative regulator of autophagy in general, best studied during response to starvation, which is a metabolic response. During lysosomal damage however, mTOR inhibition activates autophagy response in its quality control function, leading to the process termed lysophagy that removes damaged lysosomes.
== Publications == The OECD publishes books, reports, statistics, working papers, and reference materials. All titles and databases published since 1998 can be accessed via OECD.org. The OECD Library & Archives collection dates from 1947, including records from the Committee for European Economic Co-operation (CEEC) and the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC), predecessors of today's OECD. External researchers can consult OECD publications and archival material on the OECD premises by appointment.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
It is a short synthetic peptide built from seven amino acids: methionine, glutamic acid, histidine, phenylalanine and three prolines. The sequence derives from the 4-10 fragment of adrenocorticotropic hormone with an added proline-glycine-proline tail. No plant or animal extract is involved; the material is produced by solid-phase peptide synthesis.
It was developed in the Soviet Union during the early 1980s by groups at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow. Russian approval for intranasal use followed, and it has been marketed there since. Western laboratories encountered it mainly through translated literature and, later, through online research-chemical trade.
It holds a Russian registration as a prescription nasal product but has no approval from the European Medicines Agency or the United States Food and Drug Administration. Buyers outside Russia usually receive material sold strictly for laboratory research. That distinction matters because research-grade and pharmaceutical-grade products carry different documentation and testing expectations.
It is a synthetic peptide of seven amino acids. Its backbone corresponds to a fragment of adrenocorticotropic hormone extended at the carboxyl end. The material is distributed as a lyophilized solid for laboratory use.