ACTH(4-10) is one of those subjects where the details matter more than the headlines. This page pulls together the background, the mechanisms, and the practical points readers ask about most.
Last reviewed on 2025-09-19. Where a claim depends on a specific study, the study is described rather than over-claimed.
The compound was developed in the 1980s at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow, where it emerged from research on short ACTH fragments and their effects on the central nervous system. Russian pharmaceutical listings describe it as a nootropic and neuroprotective agent, most often formulated as nasal drops. It is not a marketed medicine in the United States or the European Union, and no pharmacopoeial monograph covers it. Consequently, most published clinical experience with the substance originates from a small number of research centres, mainly in Russia and neighbouring countries.
Pharmacological accounts link semax to melanocortin signalling and to modulation of neurotrophic factor expression, particularly brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor. Much of this evidence comes from rodent studies using intranasal delivery, a route chosen because it allows peptides to reach the central nervous system with limited systemic exposure. Whether the same mechanisms operate in humans at comparable magnitude remains an open question. The precise receptor or receptors responsible for the reported behavioural and neuroprotective effects have not been conclusively identified.
Semax is a synthetic seven-amino-acid peptide whose sequence extends the ACTH(4-10) fragment with a C-terminal proline-glycine-proline tripeptide. The commonly cited sequence is Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro, giving a molecular formula near C37H51N9O10S and a molecular weight close to 813.9 g/mol. It belongs to the broader class of synthetic ACTH fragments studied for central nervous system effects rather than for adrenal steroid stimulation. In practice the material appears as a lyophilized white powder for laboratory work or as a dilute saline solution in clinical settings.
Development is attributed to researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow during the early 1980s, building on earlier Soviet work with ACTH fragments. Russian regulatory approval followed for intranasal use, and the compound has remained commercially available there for decades. Most published human data originate from Russian and, later, some Eastern European clinical reports, which are not always accessible in English translation. Outside that region the material is generally handled as a research chemical rather than a licensed medicine.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Molecular formula | C37H51N9O10S | Free acid form of the heptapeptide; depends on terminal groups |
| Molecular mass | About 813.9 g/mol | Average mass used for mass spectrometry confirmation |
| Appearance | White to off-white solid | Supplied as a lyophilised powder; hygroscopic |
| Solubility class | Freely soluble in aqueous media | Water, saline, and phosphate buffers; limited organic solubility |
| Typical storage temperature | -20 degrees Celsius | Long term and dry; short working periods may use 2 to 8 degrees Celsius |
Laboratory work points toward modulation of neurotrophic signaling, particularly expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in hippocampal tissue. Studies also describe effects on monoamine turnover, inflammatory mediators, and oxidative markers. These observations come mainly from animal models and cultured cells, so the causal chain in humans is not firmly established. Whether the reported molecular changes translate into measurable clinical benefit is an open question. Reviews generally present the mechanism as plausible rather than demonstrated.
Clinical evidence consists largely of small trials with modest sample sizes, often without independent replication. Reported endpoints include cognitive scores, recovery after stroke, and visual function, but study designs vary widely and few trials meet contemporary reporting standards. Systematic reviewers have noted a high risk of bias in several of these reports. No large multicenter trial conducted outside Russia has been published. The compound is therefore best described as investigational in most jurisdictions, with its clinical role still unresolved.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide with the sequence Met-Glu-His-Phe-Pro-Gly-Pro. Its chain combines the first seven residues of corticotropin with a C-terminal proline-glycine-proline extension, a modification intended to slow enzymatic breakdown. The free peptide has a molecular mass near 813.9 daltons. It belongs to the class of ACTH-derived fragments studied for central nervous system activity rather than for adrenal steroid stimulation. This structural relationship to a natural hormone fragment is the usual starting point for describing the compound in the literature.
Semax is a synthetic heptapeptide developed in the Soviet Union during the 1980s by researchers at the Institute of Molecular Genetics in Moscow. It was designed as a truncated analog of adrenocorticotropic hormone, retaining only the fragment spanning residues four through ten. Investigators sought a peptide that would preserve the cognitive effects associated with ACTH while eliminating the hormonal stimulation of the adrenal cortex. The compound entered clinical use in Russia during the following decade.
Russian regulatory authorities approved the peptide for nasal administration, and it remains listed in the national pharmacopoeia under several trade names. Documented indications include acute ischemic stroke, transient ischemic attacks, traumatic brain injury, and certain ophthalmological and neurological conditions. Physicians also prescribe it for cognitive complaints in older patients, although the evidence base for that use is thinner. Outside Russia and a few neighboring states, the substance is not an approved medicine and is sold instead as a research chemical.
The proposed mechanism centres on neurotrophic signalling rather than direct receptor activation. Semax is reported to increase expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor and nerve growth factor in several brain regions, and to shift the balance between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter systems. Interaction with melanocortin receptors has been suggested because of the parent ACTH fragment. Many of these findings come from rodent studies, and the extent to which they translate to human physiology remains an open question.
Scientific literature on semax is unevenly distributed. A substantial share of published work originates from a small number of laboratories in Russia, while independent replication elsewhere is limited. Human data consist mostly of small trials with short follow-up, and several reported outcomes rely on subjective rating scales. Questions about how much intact peptide reaches the central nervous system after nasal administration, and how long it persists there, are still unresolved. The compound is best described as an active research subject rather than a settled pharmacological agent.
A diener is a morgue worker responsible for handling, moving, and cleaning the corpse. In the UK, the equivalent job title is "mortuary assistant", whilst the preparation, evisceration and reconstruction of the deceased is performed by an anatomical pathology technician. In the US, dieners are also referred to as "mortuary assistants" or "autopsy technicians". The word is derived from the German word Leichendiener, which literally means corpse servant (diener means servant.). A diener performs a number of tasks in medical schools and morgues. Helping a pathologist with examining and reconstructing cadavers are main tasks performed by a diener. A diener assists a pathologist or physician during an autopsy completing tasks such as handling tools and supplies cuting in to them and preparation of the deceased before and after autopsy. In addition to physical work with a pathologist and cadavers, dieners do work such as record keeping of identification and documentation of deceased in the form of items such as death certificates. In the American Moravian Church (German: Herrnhuter Brüdergemeine), the men and (particularly) the women who assist in church services (like the Lovefeast) are called "dieners", from the German title for their office, Saaldiener or "chapel servant".
Here, phenyllithium 1 attacks the carbonyl group of DMF 2, giving tetrahedral intermediate 3. Because the dimethylamide anion is a poor leaving group, the intermediate does not collapse and another nucleophilic addition does not occur. Upon acidic workup, the alkoxide is protonated to give 4, then the amine is protonated to give 5. Elimination of a neutral molecule of dimethylamine and loss of a proton give benzaldehyde, 6. A new class of amide reactions was discovered in 2015 by the research teams of Neil Garg and Ken Houk, showing that amides can be converted to esters using nickel catalysis. The nickel catalyst breaks the ordinarily strong amide C-N bond through oxidative addition. Many other amide cross-couplings were subsequently developed using nickel or palladium catalysis, including Suzuki-Miyaura couplings, allowing for amides to be readily converted to numerous other functional groups.
7-OH-MIT, like mitragynine, appears to be a mixed opioid receptor agonist/antagonist, with recent research indicating that it acts as a partial agonist at μ-opioid receptors and as a competitive antagonist at δ- and κ-opioid receptors. Both 7-OH-MIT and mitragynine do not appear to activate the β-arrestin pathway, distinguishing it from traditional opiate and opioid chemicals. Cross-tolerance to morphine was evident in mice rendered tolerant to 7-OH-MIT and vice versa. Naloxone-induced withdrawal signs were elicited equally in mice consistently dosed with 7-OH-MIT or morphine.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
=== DNA repair === Exposure of the earthworm Eisenia fetida to ionizing radiation induced DNA strand breaks and oxidized DNA bases. These DNA damages could then be repaired in somatic and spermatogenic cells. Earthworm testis cells are also capable of repairing hydrogen peroxide induced oxidative DNA adducts.
== As lipid-modifying medication == Prescription nicotinic acid, commonly labeled as niacin in the United States, is available in immediate-release and slow-release formulations. It is used to treat primary hyperlipidemia and hypertriglyceridemia. It is used either as a monotherapy or in combination with other lipid-modifying drugs. Dosages start at 500 mg/day and are often gradually increased to as high as 3000 mg/day for immediate release or 2000 mg/day for slow release (also referred to as sustained release) to achieve the targeted lipid changes (lower LDL-C and triglycerides, and higher HDL-C). Prescriptions in the US peaked in 2009, at 9.4 million and had declined to 800 thousand by 2020. In 2023, it was the 288th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 500,000 prescriptions. Systematic reviews found no effect of prescription nicotinic acid on all-cause mortality, cardiovascular mortality, myocardial infarctions, nor fatal or non-fatal strokes despite raising HDL cholesterol in patients already taking statins. Reported side effects include an increased risk of new-onset type 2 diabetes.
==== Controversy surrounding the book Transmania ==== In April 2024, the Paris town hall opposed the promotion on billboards of a book she wrote with Dora Moutot, Transmania. According to the First Deputy Mayor, Emmanuel Grégoire, the book propagates "hate speech" towards transgender people, which "goes against the values held by the City of Paris". After JCDecaux withdrew its advertisements for the book, Dora Moutot denounced this as "an act of censorship" . On April 20, 2024, SOS Homophobie announced that it was filing a complaint against Dora Moutot and Marguerite Stern for their book Transmania, the association denouncing "hatred against trans people". A conference on books at the Paris-Panthéon-Assas university at the initiative of the Student Cockade was announced for May 6, 2024, provoking controversy, with left-wing student associations and the communist senator of Paris Ian Brossat requesting its cancellation. It was finally held under police protection in an annex center, while a counter-demonstration of 150 people took place across from it. She participated in the 2024 summer course of the far-right Reconquête party led by Éric Zemmour.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
need not be constant – in general, they depend on two thermodynamics variables if the fluid contains a single chemical species, say for example, pressure and temperature. Any equation that makes explicit one of these transport coefficient in the conservation variables is called an equation of state. The most general of the Navier–Stokes equations become
== See also == Animal mummy Bodies: The Exhibition Corpse decomposition Embalming Fossil Incorruptibility List of mummies List of Egyptian mummies List of DNA-tested mummies Medical cannibalism Mummia
dyspepsia of a non-ulcer/dysmotility type (gastric "fullness", discomfort, and possible pain) gastroparesis (delayed gastric emptying) anorexia heartburn regurgitation bloating nausea and vomiting other possible gastric, prolactin, or dopamine related conditions Itopride was shown to significantly improve symptoms in patients with functional dyspepsia and motility disorders in placebo-controlled trials. These studies concluded that the reduction in the severity of symptoms of functional dyspepsia after 8 weeks of treatment with itopride indicated that itopride was significantly superior to placebo and that itopride yielded a greater rate of response than placebo in significantly reducing pain and fullness.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
It is described as a synthetic analogue of the ACTH(4–10) fragment, a short segment of adrenocorticotropic hormone. Its sequence differs from that fragment and includes two proline residues, which influence stability and behaviour in solution.
It appears in Russian pharmaceutical listings as a nasal formulation, but it is not an authorised medicine in the United States or the European Union. Outside those markets it is normally encountered as a research chemical rather than a prescription product.
Laboratory and animal work points to melanocortin signalling and changes in neurotrophic factor levels, especially brain-derived neurotrophic factor. The exact receptor targets and the degree to which these findings transfer to humans are still unresolved.
It is a short synthetic peptide built from seven amino acids: methionine, glutamic acid, histidine, phenylalanine and three prolines. The sequence derives from the 4-10 fragment of adrenocorticotropic hormone with an added proline-glycine-proline tail. No plant or animal extract is involved; the material is produced by solid-phase peptide synthesis.